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For assistance in making phonetic transcriptions of Russian for Wikipedia articles, see Help:IPA for Russian This article discusses the phonological system of standard Russian based on the Moscow dialect (unless otherwise noted). For discussion of other dialects, see Russian dialects. Russian possesses five vowels and consonants typically come in pairs of hard (твёрдый [ˈtvʲo.rdɨj]) and soft (мягкий [ˈmʲæ.xʲkʲɪj]) or plain and palatalized.
[edit] VowelsRussian possesses five vowel phonemes which are subject to considerable allophony. A number of linguists[1] consider [ɨ] to be a separate phoneme; the interpretation taken by this article is that it is an allophone of /i/:
Vowel allophony is largely dependent on stress and the palatalization of neighboring consonants: [edit] Front vowelsWhen a preceding consonant is hard, /i/ is retracted to [ɨ]. While this is phonetically central, for phonological purposes it is considered back. When unstressed, /i/ becomes near-close; that is, [ɨ̞] following a hard consonant and [ɪ] in most other environments.[2] Between soft consonants, both stressed and unstressed /i/ are raised,[3] as in пить [pʲi̝tʲ] ('to drink') and маленький [ˈmalʲɪ̝nʲkʲɪj] ('small'). When preceded and followed by coronal or dorsal consonants, [ɨ] is fronted to [ɨ̟].[4] After a labial + /l/ cluster, [ɨ] is retracted, as in плыть [plɨ̠tʲ] ('to float'); it is also slightly diphthongized to [ɯ̟ɨ̟].[5] In native words, /e/ only follows unpaired (i.e. the retroflexes and /t͡s/) and palatalized consonants. After palatalized consonants (but not before), it is a mid vowel ([e̞] or [ɛ̝]), while a following palatalized consonant raises it to [e]. Another allophone, an open-mid [ɛ] occurs word-initially and never before or after palatalized consonants (hereafter [ɛ̝] is represented without the diacritic for simplicity).[6] Preceding hard consonants retract /e/ to [ɛ̠] and [e̠][7] so that жест ('gesture') and цель ('target') are pronounced [ʐɛ̠st] and [t͡se̠lʲ] respectively. In words borrowed from other languages, it is often the case that /e/ does not follow a palatalized consonant until the word has been fully adopted into Russian.[8] For instance, шофёр (from French chauffeur) was pronounced [ʂoˈfɛr] in the early twentieth century but is now pronounced [ʂɐˈfʲor].[citation needed] On the other hand, the pronunciations of words such as отель [ɐˈtɛlʲ] ('hotel') retain the hard consonants despite a long presence in the language. [edit] Back vowelsBetween soft consonants, /a/ becomes [æ][9] as in пять [pʲætʲ] ('five'). When not following a palatalized consonant, /a/ is retracted to [ɑ̟] before /l/ as in палка [ˈpɑ̟lkə] ('stick').[10] For most speakers, /o/ is a mid vowel but it can be more open for some speakers.[11] Between palatalized consonants[12] or simply following a one,[13] /o/ is centralized to [ɵ̞] as in тётя [ˈtʲɵ.tʲə] ('aunt'). As with the other back vowels, /u/ is centralized between palatalized consonants,[14] as in чуть [t͡ɕʉtʲ] ('narrowly'). When unstressed, /u/ becomes near-close. [edit] Vowel reductionUnstressed vowels tend to merge together. /o/ and /a/ generally have the same unstressed allophones and unstressed /e/ becomes /i/ (picking up its unstressed allophones).[15] Russian orthography (as opposed to that of linguistically similar Belarusian) does not reflect vowel reduction. The realization of unstressed /o/ and /a/ goes as follows:
Across certain word-final suffixes, the reductions do not completely apply.[21] In certain suffixes, after palatalized consonants and /j/, /a/ and /o/ (which is written as <е>) can be distinguished from /i/ and from each other: по́ле ('field' nom. sg. neut,)' is different from по́ля ('field' sg.gen), and these final sounds differ from the realization of /i/ in such position.[citation needed] There are a number of exceptions to the above comments on unstressed /о/ and /a/.
In addition to this, the unstressed high vowels /i/ and /u/ become lax (or near-close) as in ютиться [jʉ̞ˈtʲit͡sə][23] ('to huddle'), этап [ɪˈtap] ('stage'), дышать [dɨ̞ˈʂatʲ] ('to breathe'), and мужчина [mʊˈɕɕinə] ('man'). In weakly stressed positions, vowels may become voiceless between two voiceless consonants: выставка [ˈvɨstə̥fkə] ('exhibition'), потому что [pə̥tɐˈmu ʂtə] ('because'). This may also happen in cases where only the following consonant is voiceless: череп [t͡ɕerʲɪ̥p] ('skull'). [edit] DiphthongsRussian diphthongs all end in a non-syllabic [i̯], which can be considered an allophone of /j/, the only semivowel in Russian. In all contexts other than after a vowel, /j/ is considered an approximant consonant. Phonological descriptions of /j/ may also classify it as a consonant even in the coda. In such descriptions, Russian has no diphthongs. The first part of diphthongs are subject to the same allophony as their constituent vowels. Examples of words with diphthongs: яйцо [jɪjˈt͡so] ('egg'), ей [jej] ('her' instr), действенный [ˈdʲejstvʲɛnnɨj] ('effective'). /ij/ (written <ий> or <ый>) is a common adjectival affix where it is often unstressed; at normal conversational speed, such unstressed endings may be monophthongized to [ɪ̟].[24] [edit] Consonants<ʲ> denotes palatalization, meaning the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant.
Phonetic details:
A series of reductionist approaches made by many structuralists[28] have postulated an underlying deep structure wherein palatalized consonants are the result of phonological processes.[29] Despite such proposals, linguists have long agreed that the underlying structure of Russian is closer to that of its acoustic properties, namely that palatalized consonants are phonemes in their own right.[30] [edit] Phonological processesVoiced consonants (/b/, /bʲ/, /d/, /dʲ/ /g/, /v/, /vʲ/, /z/, /zʲ/, /ʐ/, and /ʑʑ/) are devoiced word-finally unless the next word begins with a voiced obstruent.[31] /g/, in addition becoming voiceless, also lenites to [x]. Russian features a general retrograde assimilation of voicing and palatalization.[32] In longer clusters, this means that multiple consonants may be palatalized despite their underlyingly (and orthographically) being unpalatalized.[33] The process of voicing assimilation applies across word-boundaries when there's no pause between words.[34] [edit] VoicingWithin a morpheme, voicing is not distinctive before obstruents (except for /v/, and /vʲ/ when followed by a vowel or sonorant). The voicing or devoicing is determined by that of the final obstruent in the sequence:[35] просьба [ˈprozʲbə] ('request'), водка [ˈvotkə] ('vodka'). In foreign borrowings, this isn't always the case for /f(ʲ)/, as in Адольф Гитлер [ɐˈdolʲf ˈgʲitlʲɪr] ('Adolf Hitler') and граф болеет [graf bɐˈleɪt] ('the count is ill'). /v/ and /vʲ/ are unusual in that they seem transparent to voicing assimilation; in the syllable onset, both voiced and voiceless consonants may appear before /v(ʲ)/:
When /v(ʲ)/ precedes and follows obstruents, the voicing of the cluster is goverened by that of the final segment (per the rule above) so that voiceless obstruents that precede /v(ʲ)/ are voiced if /v(ʲ)/ is followed by a voiced obstruent (e.g. к вдове [g vdɐˈvʲɛ] 'to the widow') while a voiceless obstruent will devoice all segments (e.g. без впуска [bʲɛs ˈfpuskə] 'without an admission').[36] /t͡ɕ/, /t͡s/, and /x/ have voiced allophones before voiced obstruents,[37] as in дочь бы [ˈdod͡ʑ bɨ][38] ('a daughter would' [I like to have][39]) and плацдарм [plɐd͡zˈdarm] ('bridge-head'). Other than /mʲ/ and /nʲ/, nasals and liquids devoice between voiceless consonants or a voiceless consonant and a pause: контрфорс [ˌkontr̥ˈfors] ('buttress').[40] [edit] PalatalizationBefore /j/, paired consonants are normally palatalized as in пью [pʲju] ('I drink') and пьеса [ˈpʲjɛ.sə] ('theatrical play'). съездить [ˈsje.zʲdʲɪtʲ] ('to go/ travel') is an exception to this for many speakers. Paired consonants preceding /e/ are also palatalized; although there are exceptions from loanwords, alternations across morpheme boundaries are the norm.[41] The Following examples show the different types of alternations:[42]
Because velar consonants are unpaired, palatalization contrasts do not exist, especially before front vowels. Allophonically, they become palatalized as in короткий [kɐˈrotkʲɪj] ('short') unless there is a word boundary, in which case they are plain (e.g. к Ивану [k ‿ɨvanu] 'to Ivan').[44] Before plain dental consonants, /r/, /rʲ/, labial and dental consonants are plain: орла [ɐrˈla] ('eagle' gen. sg). Before palatalized labial and dental consonants or /lʲ/, dental consonants (other than /t͡s/) are palatalized.[45][dubious ] Velar consonants are palatalized when preceding /i/; within words, this means that velar consonants are never followed by [ɨ].[46] /x/ assimilates the palatalization of the following velar consonant легких [ˈlʲɵxʲkʲɪx] ('lungs' gen. pl). Palatalization assimilation of labial consonants before labial consonants is in free variation with nonassimilation, that is бомбить ('to bomb') is either [bɐmˈbʲitʲ] or [bɐmʲˈbʲitʲ] depending on the individual speaker. When plain /n/ precedes its palatalized cognate, it is also palatalized (see gemination). This is slightly less common across affix boundaries. In addition to this, dental stridents conform to the place of articulation (not just the palatalization) of following postalveolars: с частью [ˈɕɕasʲtʲju] ('with a part'). In careful speech, this does not occur across word boundaries. Russian has the rare features of nasals not typically assimilating place of articulation. For example, both /n/ and /nʲ/ appear before retroflex consonants: деньжонки [dʲɪnʲˈʐonkʲɪ] ('money' (scornful)) and ханжой [xɐnˈʐoj] ('hypocrite' instr.). In the same context, other coronal consonants are always plain. The velar nasal is an allophone before velar consonants in some words (функция [ˈfuŋk.t͡sɨjə] 'function'), but not in most other words like банк [bank] ('bank'). [edit] Consonant ClustersRussian allows consonant clusters. Some, such as in встретить [ˈfstrʲetʲɪtʲ] ('to encounter'), can have as much as four segments. Other cluster types are also attested, some of which would be difficult for English speakers.
For speakers who pronounce [ɕt͡ɕ] instead of [ɕɕ], words like общий ('common') also constitute clusters of this type.
If /j/ is considered a consonant in the coda position, then words like айва ('quince') contain semivowel+consonant clusters. Clusters of four consonants are possible, but not very common, especially within a morpheme[47]. Some potential clusters are deleted as well. For example, dental plosives are dropped between a dental continuant and a dental nasal: лестный [ˈlʲɛsnɨj] ('flattering'). [edit] Supplementary notes/n/ and /nʲ/ are the only consonants that can be geminated. The historic transformation of /g/ into /v/ in the genitive case (and also the accusative for animate entities) of masculine singular adjectives and pronouns is not reflected in the modern Russian orthography: его [jɪˈvo] ('his/him'), белого [ˈbʲɛ.lə.və] ('white' gen. sg.), синего [ˈsʲi.nʲɪ.və] ('blue' gen. sg.). Orthographic г also represents /x/ when it precedes other velar sounds. Between any vowel and /i/ (excluding instances across affix boundaries but including unstressed vowels that have merged with /i/), /j/ may be dropped: аист [ˈa.ɪst] ('stork') and делает [ˈdʲɛləɪt] ('does').[48][49] Stress in Russian may fall on any syllable, and may shift within an inflexional paradigm: до́ма [ˈdo.mə] ('house' gen. sg.) vs дома́ [dɐˈma] ('houses'). The place of the stress in a word is determined by the interplay between the morphemes it contains, as some morphemes have underlying stress, while others do not. However, other than some compound words, such as морозоустойчивый [mɐˌrozəʊˈstojtɕɪvɨj] ('frost-resistant') only one syllable is stressed in a word.[50] Russian also has an intonation pattern similar to that of English.[citation needed] Non-open back vowels velarize preceding hard consonants: ты [tˠɨ] ('you' sing.). /o/ and /u/ labialize all consonants: бок [bʷok] ('side'), нёс [nʲʷos] ('he carried'). [51] [edit] Historical sound changes
The modern phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic, but underwent considerable innovation in the early historical period, before being largely settled by about 1400. Like all Slavic languages, Russian was originally a language of open syllables. All syllables ended in vowels (as in Fijian and Hawaiian), and consonant clusters, in far lesser variety than today, existed only at the start of a syllable. By the time of the earliest records, Old Russian already showed characteristic divergences from Common Slavonic. Major features of this stage include: The loss of the nasal vowels (the yuses of ancient Cyrillic), which had themselves developed from Indo-European [-en-]/[-an-]/[-on-] before a consonant — usually dental or labial — and at word boundaries. Non-nasalized vowels took their place, possibly iotated or with softening of the preceding consonant: Borrowings in the Finno-Ugric languages with interpolated [-n-] after Common Slavonic nasal vowels have been taken to indicate that the nasal vowels did exist in East Slavic until some time possibly just before the historical period. Simplification of Common Slavic *-dl-/-tl- to -l-:
A tendency for greater maintenance of intermediate ancient [-s-], [-k-], etc. before frontal vowels, than in other Slavic languages, the so-called incomplete second and third palatalizations:
Pleophony or "full-voicing" (polnoglasie, 'полногласие' [pə.lnɐˈgla.sʲɪ.jə]), that is, the addition of vowels on either side of /l/ and /r/ between two consonants. Church Slavonic influence has made it less common in Russian than in modern Ukrainian and Belarusian:
Major phonological processes in the last thousand years have included the absence of the Slavonic open-syllable requirement, achieved in part through the loss of the ultra-short vowels, the so-called fall of the yers, which alternately lengthened and dropped (the yers are given conventional transcription rather than precise IPA symbols in the Old Russian pronunciations):
The loss of the yers has led to geminated consonants and a much greater variety of consonant clusters, with attendant voicing and/or devoicing in the assimilation:
Consonant clusters thus created were often simplified:
The development of OR ѣ /ě/ (conventional transcription) into /(j)e/, as seen above. This development has caused by far the greatest of all Russian spelling controversies. The timeline of the development of /ě/ into /e/ or /je/ has also been debated. A greater variety of palatalized phonemes, and the systematic palatalization of consonants before /e/ and /i/. Sometime between the twelfth and fourteenth century, the allophone of /i/ before velar consonants changed from [ɨ] to [i] with subsequent palatalization of the velars.[52] The retroflexing of postalveolars: /ʒ/ became [ʐ] and /ʃ/ become [ʂ]. This is considered a "hardening" since retroflex sounds are difficult to palatalize. At some point, /t͡s/ resisted palatalization, which is why it is also "hard" although phonetically it is no different than before. The sound represented by <щ> was much more commonly pronounced as /ɕt͡ɕ/ than it is today. Today's common and standard pronunciation of <щ> is /ɕɕ/. The development of stressed /e/ into /o/ when between a palatalized consonant and a plain one:[53]
This has led to a number of alternations:[54]
Loanwords from Church Slavonic reintroduced /e/ between a soft consonant and a hard one, including:[55]
A number of Russian's phonological features are attributable to the introduction of loanwords (especially from non-Slavic languages), including:
Many double consonants have become degeminated, though they are still written with two letters in the orthography.[62] [edit] See also
[edit] References
[edit] Bibliography
[edit] Further reading
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