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Law enforcement in the United Kingdom is organised separately in Scotland, Northern Ireland, England and Wales (administration of police matters is not generally affected by the Government of Wales Act 2006), and arranged in geographical police areas matched to the boundaries of one or more local government areas in the United Kingdom. The majority of law enforcement is carried out by police constables. They are normally members of territorial police forces or special police forces. Territorial police forces cover a 'police area' (a particular geographical region) and have an independent Police Authority. Current police forces have their grounding in the Police Act 1964 (in England and Wales), the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 or the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000, which prescribe a number of issues such as appointment of a Chief Constable, jurisdiction and responsibilities. Special police forces have a specific, non-regional jurisdiction, such as the British Transport Police. There are also some constables whose powers are limited to small areas of land such as ports, parks and universities. However, law enforcement is increasingly being carried out by people who are not constables. Since 2002, some police forces have been able to give employees certain, limited, powers above those of a normal person. Similar powers may be given to approved security guards. Staff of the UK Border Agency have limited detention powers at ports, and council officers have certain powers to enter property. Lastly, in Northern Ireland, members of Her Majesty's Forces have limited powers of search, arrest and entry. [edit] Jurisdictions and territoriesIn the United Kingdom, every person has limited powers of arrest if they see a crime being committed[1] - these are called 'every person powers', commonly referred to as a 'citizen's arrest'. The vast majority of attested constables enjoy full powers of arrest and search as granted by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, which applies only to England and Wales. All police officers are "constables" in law, irrespective of rank. Although police officers have wide ranging powers, they are still civilians and subject to the same laws as members of the public. However there are certain legal restrictions on police officers such the illegality of taking industrial action and the ban on taking part in active politics. [edit] Territorial police constablesMost police officers are members of territorial police forces. Upon taking an oath for one of these forces, they have jurisdiction in one of the three distinct legal system - either England and Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland. A police officer of one of the three legal systems has all the powers of a constable throughout their own legal system but limited powers in the other two legal systems. Certain exceptions where full police powers cross the border with the officer are when officers are providing planned support to another force such as the G8 Conference in Scotland in 2005 [2], and officers of the Metropolitan Police who are on protection duties anywhere in the United Kingdom.[3] [edit] Other constablesThere are many constables who are not members of territorial police forces. The most notable are members of the three forces referred to as 'special police forces': the British Transport Police, Ministry of Defence Police and Civil Nuclear Constabulary. These officers have the 'powers and privileges of a constable' on land relating to their work and in matters relating to their work.[4][5][6] BTP and MDP officers have additional jurisdiction where requested by a constable of another force, in which case they take on that constables jurisdiction.[7][8] Upon request from the chief police officer of a police force, members of one of the above three forces can be give the full powers of constables in the police area of the requesting force.[9][10] This was used to supplement police numbers in the areas surrounding the 2005 G8 summit at Gleneagles. There are also many acts which allow companies or councils to employ constables for a specific purpose. Firstly, there are 10[11] companies whose employees are sworn in as special constables under section 79 of the Harbours, Docks, and Piers Clauses Act 1847. As a result, they have the full powers of a constable on any land owned by the harbour, dock, or port and at any place within one mile of any owned land. Secondly, there are also some forces created by specific legislation such as the Port of Tilbury Police (Port of London Act 1968), Mersey Tunnels Police (County of Merseyside Act 1989) and the Epping Forest Keepers (Epping Forest Act 1878). Thirdly, under Article 18 of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government Provisional Order Confirmation (Greater London Parks and Open Spaces) Act 1967, London Borough Councils are allowed to swear in council officers as constables for "securing the observance of the provisions of all enactments relating to open spaces under their control or management and of bye-laws and regulations made thereunder". Theses constables are not legally police constables and have no powers to enforce criminal law other than those afforded to every citizen. [12] [edit] Police civiliansIn England & Wales, the chief police officer of a territorial police force may designate any person who is employed by the police authority maintaining that force, and is under the direction and control of that chief police officer, as one or more of the following:
They have a range of powers given by the Police Reform Act 2002[14], and their chief police officer decides which of these powers they may use. Unlike a police constable, a PCSO only has powers when on duty and in uniform, and within the area policed by their respective force. Until 1991, most parking enforcement was carried out by police-employed traffic wardens. Since the passage of the Road Traffic Act 1991, decriminalised parking enforcement has meant that most local authorities have taken on this role and now only the Metropolitan Police employs Traffic Wardens, combing the role with PCSOs as "Traffic Police Community Support Officers". In Scotland, Police Custody and Security Officers have powers similar to those of detention officers and escort officers in England and Wales.[15] Similar powers are available in Northern Ireland.[16] [edit] Accredited PersonsChief police officers of territorial police forces[17] (and the British Transport Police[18]) can also give limited powers[19] to people not employed by the police authority, under Community Safety Accreditation Schemes. A notable example are officers of the Vehicle and Operator Services Agency, who have been given powers to stop vehicles.[20] However, this practice has been criticised by the Police Federation who described it as 'half-baked'. [21] [edit] Members of the armed forcesIn Northern Ireland only, members of Her Majesty's Armed Forces have powers to stop people[22] or vehicles,[23] arrest and detain people for three hours[24] and enter buildings to keep the peace[25] or search for people who have been kidnapped.[26] Additionally, commissioned officers may close roads.[27] They may use reasonable force when excersising these powers.[28] Under the Customs Management Act 1979, members of Her Majesty's Armed Forces may detain people if they believe they have committed an offence under the Customs & Excise acts, and may seize goods if they believe they are liable to forfeiture under the same acts. [29] [edit] Other civiliansMany employees of local authorities have powers of entry relating to inspection of businesses, such as under the Sunday Trading Act 1994[30] and powers to give Fixed Penalty Notices for offences such as littering, graffiti or one of the wide ranging offences in the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005. When carrying out an investigation, staff of the Independent Police Complaints Commission have all the powers and privileges of constables throughout England and Wales and the territorial waters.[31] Employees of the Serious Organised Crime Agency can be designated[32] with the powers of a constable[33], Revenue and Customs officer[34] and immigration officer.[35] These designations can be unconditional or conditional: time limited or limited to a specific operation. Employees of the UK Border Agency may be Immigration Officers and/or customs officers. They hold certain powers of arrest, detention and search. In England & Wales, water bailiffs employed by the Environment Agency have certain powers in relation to enforcement of fishing regulations. Scottish water bailiffs have similar powers. There are also seven types of court officer - two in Scotland and five in England & Wales, commonly referred to as 'bailiffs', who can enforce court orders and in some cases arrest people. Highways Agency Traffic Officers are employed by the Highways Agency and maintain traffic flows on motorways. They have limited powers to direct traffic and place road signs. [edit] History
The office of Constable has existed in England since Saxon times, but modern police forces did not start using the title until the early 19th century, with the introduction of broadly similar forces in localised areas.
[edit] AccountabilityIn England and Wales a Police Authority, normally consisting of three magistrates, nine local councillors and five independent members, is responsible for overseeing each local force. They also have a duty under law to ensure that their community gets best value from their police force. In Northern Ireland the Police Service of Northern Ireland is supervised by the Northern Ireland Policing Board. In Scotland each police force is overseen either by the local authority (for Fife Constabulary and Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary) or by a joint board of the relevant authority for all other forces. Two of the three special police forces in Great Britain, (the British Transport Police and the Civil Nuclear Constabulary) had their own police authorities set up in 2004. These forces operate across national jurisdictions but their normal responsibility is to the activities they police, i.e. the railways and the civil nuclear industry. 
[edit] Her Majesty's Inspectorates of ConstabularyHer Majesty's Inspectorates of Constabulary (HMIC) are the official bodies responsible for the examination and assessment of police forces to ensure their requirements are met as intended. There are two similarly-named organisations:
[edit] Crown dependencies and overseas territoriesThe Crown dependencies and British overseas territories have their own police forces, the majority of which utilise the British model. Because they are not part of the United Kingdom, they are not answerable to the British Government; instead they are organised by and are responsible to their own governments (an exception to this is the Sovereign Base Areas Police - because the SBAs existence is purely for the benefit of the British armed forces and do not have full overseas territory status, the SBA Police are responsible to the Ministry of Defence). However, because they are based on the British model of policing, these police forces conform to the standards set out by the British government, which includes voluntarily submitting themselves to inspection by the HMIC. [edit] RanksThe rank structure of United Kingdom police forces are identical up to the rank of Chief Superintendent. However, the higher ranks are distinct within London. The two territorial police forces in London (Metropolitan and City of London) have a series of Commander and Commissioner ranks as their top ranks whereas other UK police forces have assistants, deputies and a Chief Constable as their top ranks; all Commissioners and Chief Constables are equal in rank to each other. [edit] Uniform and equipment
Uniforms, the issuing of firearms, type of patrol cars and other equipment varies by force. Unlike police in other developed countries, the vast majority of British police officers do not carry firearms on standard patrol; they do however carry Extendable "Asp" or fixed Monadnock PR-24 batons and CS/PAVA spray. There are, however, exceptions. Every territorial force has a specialist Firearms Unit[38] which maintain Armed Response Vehicles to respond to firearms related emergency calls, while one territorial force (the Police Service of Northern Ireland) and two of the special police forces, (the Civil Nuclear Constabulary and the Ministry of Defence Police) being routinely armed. The British Transport Police is the only police force in the country without firearms officers, relying on the local territorial force should an armed incident occur on the railways. The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) firearms unit is called CO19 (formerly SO19), but every force in the United Kingdom apart from the British Transport Police has firearms trained officers available should the need arise. Metropolitan and City of London Police operate with three officers per Armed Response Vehicle (ARV). Each unit comprises a driver, a navigator, and an observer who gathers information about the incident and liaises with other units. Other police forces carry two Authorised Firearms Officers instead of three. Armed Police carry a combination of weapons, ranging from German Heckler & Koch MP5 carbines, Heckler & Koch MSG901 Sniper rifles, Heckler & Koch Baton Guns (which fire baton rounds) and Heckler & Koch G36Cs to a number of specialist weapons such as the Remington pump-action shotgun. Home Secretary Jacqui Smith recently unveiled new plans to train and arm response officers with Tasers, rather than just specialist firearms teams[39][40][41]. [edit] HeightIn the 19th and early 20th centuries most forces required their recruits to be at least 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm) in height. By 1960 many forces had reduced this to 5 feet 8 inches (173 cm), and 5 feet 4 inches (163 cm) for women. Many senior officers deplored this, believing that height was a vital requirement for a uniformed constable.[42] Some forces retained the height standard at 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm) or 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) until the early 1990s, when the height standard was gradually removed. This is due to the MacPherson report of 1999, as the height restriction was seen to discriminate against those of ethnic backgrounds such as the Chinese, who are generally much shorter.[citation needed] No British force now requires its recruits to be of any minimum height. [edit] Organisation of police forcesAs all police forces are autonomous organisations there is much variation in organisation and nomenclature, however outlined below are the main strands of policing that makes up police forces:
[edit] Issues[edit] Controversial shootingsThe policy under which British police use firearms has resulted in controversy. [edit] Deaths in police custodyIn 1997/98, 69 people died in police custody or following contact with the police across England and Wales; 26 resulted from deliberate self harm. [1] There are two defined categories of death in custody issued by the Home Office: [2] Category A: This category also encompasses deaths of those under arrest who are held in temporary police accommodation or have been taken to hospital following arrest. It also includes those who die, following arrest, whilst in a police vehicle.
Category B: Where the deceased was otherwise in the hands of the police or death resulted from the actions of a police officer in the purported execution of his duty.
[edit] Recent issuesEvidence of corruption in the 1970s, serious urban riots and the police role in controlling industrial disorder in the 1980s, and the changing nature of police procedure made police accountability and control a major political football from the 1990s onwards. The coal miners' strike (1984–1985) saw thousands of police from various forces deployed against miners, frequently resulting in violent confrontation. The presence of Freemasons in the police caused disquiet in the early 1990s.[citation needed][clarification needed] The Fettesgate scandal in the early 1990s concerned the theft (and allegedly the subsequent recovery) of sensitive documents from the Edinburgh headquarters of Lothian and Borders Police. Nobody has ever been charged, and, at least publicly, no officer was disciplined. Despite attempts to end racism and what the Macpherson Report described as "institutionalised racism" in the police since the 1993 murder of Stephen Lawrence, there have been ongoing problems. At the same time, some commentators and academics have claimed that political correctness and excessive sensitivity to issues of race and class have reduced the effectiveness of the police force, not least for people living in deprived areas or members of minority groups themselves. In 2003, ten police officers from Greater Manchester Police, North Wales Police and Cheshire Constabulary were forced to resign after a BBC documentary, "The Secret Policeman", shown on 21 October, revealed racism among recruits at Bruche Police National Training Centre at Warrington. On 4 March 2005 the BBC noted that minor disciplinary action would be taken against twelve other officers (eleven from Greater Manchester Police and one from Lancashire Constabulary) in connection with the programme, but that they would not lose their jobs. In November 2003, allegations were made that some police officers were members of the far-right British National Party. The perceived absence of a visible police presence on the streets also frequently causes concern. This is partially being addressed by the introduction of uniformed Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs), following the passing of the Police Reform Act 2002, although some have criticised these as for being a cheap alternative to fully-trained police officers. [3] At the beginning of 2005 it was announced that the Police Information Technology Organisation (PITO) had signed an eight-year £122 m contract to introduce biometric identification technology. [4] PITO are also planning to use CCTV facial recognition systems to identify known suspects; a future link to the proposed National Identity Register has been suggested by some. [5] A number of recent cases in which the police have intervened in matters of free speech have also given rise to allegations that the police are in danger of becoming thought police. In December 2005, author Lynette Burrows was interviewed by police after expressing her opinion on BBC Radio 5 Live that homosexuals should not be allowed to adopt children. [6] The following month, Sir Iqbal Sacranie was investigated by police for stating the Islamic view that homosexuality is a sin. [7] Recent undercover TV programmes BBC's The Secret Policeman [8] and Channel 4 Dispatches programme Undercover Copper [9] raised questions of standards within UK police forces. [edit] Fixed Threat Assessment CentreNicknamed 'Blair's Secret Stalker Squad' http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=457934&in_page_id=1770&ct=5 was set up in 2006 to identify and address those individuals considered to pose a threat to VIP's or the Royals. On 25 June 2007 Hansard, Secretary of State for the Home Department Mr McNulty describes speaks of the FTAC: ''The Fixated Threat Assessment Centre (FTAC) was established in order to better protect the public and vulnerable individuals in response to evidence that a significant proportion of people who engage in bizarre communications or contact with prominent people in public life are severely and acutely mentally ill and urgently need professional help. A small but significant number of such individuals can pose a risk to the public, the prominent person, and themselves, particularly in environments where there are armed police officers. The Home Office, the Department of Health and the Metropolitan Police Service agreed to establish a joint police/mental health unit, on a pilot basis, to assess and manage the risk posed by such individuals. Where appropriate, FTAC will introduce (or reintroduce) the individuals into existing community mental health care through established pathways. If offences are disclosed, and the circumstances warrant such intervention, consideration will also be given to a criminal investigation. Since its creation in October 2006, FTAC has dealt with 168 cases. FTAC does not detain people in psychiatric hospitals. When it encounters an individual in need of mental health care it alerts their general practitioners and psychiatrists, who then provide appropriate help under existing legislation. FTAC may make use of police powers under section 136 of the Mental Health Act 1983 to take a person who appears to be suffering from mental disorder, and in immediate need of care or control, to a place of safety. When people are removed to hospital under section 136, they are examined by a registered medical practitioner and interviewed by an approved social worker, not associated with FTAC, in order to make any necessary arrangements for their treatment or care.http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200607/cmhansrd/cm070625/text/70625w0068.htm [edit] CensorshipThe image on the front cover of Filth by Scottish writer Irvine Welsh caused outrage when released and the Southampton police seized promotional material they deemed obscene and offensive to the police[43]. [edit] Proposed mergers for England and WalesIn 1981, James Anderton, the then Chief Constable of Greater Manchester Police called for 10 regional police forces for England and Wales, one for each of the regions which would be adopted as Government Office Regions in England, and Wales.[44] A 2004 proposal by the Police Superintendents Association for the creation of a single national police force, similar to Garda Síochána na hÉireann was rejected by the Association of Chief Police Officers, and the government has thus far agreed.[45] In September 2005, in a report[46] delivered to the then Home Secretary, Charles Clarke, HM Inspectorate of Constabulary suggested that the forty-three force structure in England and Wales was "no longer fit for purpose" and smaller forces should be forcibly merged. As of 2005, nineteen forces had fewer than 2,000 regular officers, and the report suggested that forces with 4,000 or more officers performed better and could deliver cost savings.[47] Forces were asked to produce proposals for mergers, within Wales and the English Government Office Regions. Nearly all the existing forces were under the 4,000 limit, with only the Metropolitan Police, Greater Manchester Police, Merseyside Police, Northumbria Police, Thames Valley Police, West Midlands Police and West Yorkshire Police over the limit - see List of police forces in England and Wales by officers for a full list. Draft options were announced in November 2005.[48] The Home Office offered money to police authorities that decided to voluntarily merge ahead of schedule, and was consequently accused of attempting to "bribe" unwilling Chief Constables into compliance.[49] The proposals were debated in the House of Commons on 19 December 2005.[50] Most Chief Constables and police authorities did not back the measure,[51] and some suggested that cross-regional mergers would make more sense (for example, Hampshire Constabulary in the South East suggested it could merge with Dorset Police in the South West, whilst there was also a suggestion of North Wales Police increasing co-operation with Cheshire Police)[52] On 6 February 2006, preferred options for several regions were announced by the Home Secretary in a Written Ministerial Statement,[53][54] and set a deadline of 24 February for forces to agree to the mergers. By this dead-line the only merger to have the agreement of all forces involved was the Cumbria/Lancashire merger. Cheshire was opposed to a merger with Merseyside, and West Mercia and Cleveland were holdouts in their regions, whilst all the Welsh forces opposed the creation of a single Welsh force.[55] The Home Secretary had the power to order the Cumbria/Lancashire merger to proceed by statutory instrument under the Police Act 1996, and also to force through the contested mergers, given a four-month consultation period. In a Written Statement made on 3 March 2006,[56] he announced that the Lancashire/Cumbria merger could be ordered in May, and that the consultation period on the others was starting, and would end on 2 July 2006. The new forces would come into being on 1 April 2007.[57][58] A second batch of merger proposals were made on 20 March 2006, with the Eastern, East Midlands and South East regions covered. A deadline of 7 April 2006 was set for responses, after which it was expected that the process above would be followed.[59][60][61] The following day, the Home Secretary proposed a merger of all four forces in the Yorkshire and the Humber region.[62] The consultation period on this second batch of mergers started on 11 April 2006, and would have finished on 11 August, with a target of 1 April 2008 for the mergers coming into effect.[63] [edit] Greater London
Upon the publication of the proposals, the Greater London area was not included. This was due to two separate reviews of policing in the capital - the first was a review by the Department of Transport into the future role and function of the British Transport Police. The second was a review by the Attorney-General into national measures for combating fraud (the City of London Police is one of the major organisations for combating economic crime).[64] Both the Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Ian Blair, and the Mayor, Ken Livingstone, stated that they would like to see a single police force in London, with the Metropolitan Police absorbing the City of London Police and the functions of the British Transport Police in London.[65] However, this met with criticism from several areas; the House of Commons Transport Select Committee severely criticised the idea of the Metropolitan Police taking over policing of the rail network in a report published on 16 May 2006,[66] while the City of London Corporation and several major financial institutions in The City made public their opposition to the City Police merging with the Met.[67] In a statement on 20 July 2006, the Transport Secretary announced that there would be no structural or operational changes to the British Transport Police, effectively ruling out any merger[68] The interim report by the Attorney General's fraud review recognised the role taken by the City Police as the lead force in London and the South-East for tackling fraud, and made a recommendation that, should a national lead force be required, the City Police, with its expertise, would be an ideal candidate to take this role.[69] This view was confirmed on the publication of the final report, which recommended that the City of London Police's Fraud Squad should be the national lead force in combatting fraud, to "act as a centre of excellence, disseminate best practice, give advice on complex inquiries in other regions, and assist with or direct the most complex of such investigations"[70] [edit] AbandonmentOn 20 June 2006 the new Home Secretary, John Reid, announced that the contested mergers would be delayed for further discussion,[71] and no mergers would be ordered before Parliament's summer recess on 25 July other than the agreed Lancashire/Cumbria one. On 11 July 2006, it then emerged that the entire proposal for police mergers might be ended, following the decision by the only two forces to have agreed to amalgamation, Cumbria and Lancashire, not to proceed.[72] The announcement of this was followed by the head of the ACPO stating that "The necessary financial support has not materialised and mergers, including voluntary ones, will not take place".[73] On 12 July 2006, the Home Office confirmed that the mergers were to be abandoned, with the entire proposal taken back for consultation[74] [edit] Other police forcesPolicing in Scotland and Northern Ireland does not come under the purview of the Home Office, and so would have remained unaffected by these proposals. Likewise, the major non-territorial forces (British Transport Police, Civil Nuclear Constabulary, Ministry of Defence Police) are responsible to other government departments, and so would not have been affected by this review. [edit] List of proposed mergersNote: these mergers have all been suspended in the long term while a further review and consultation into policing in England and Wales takes place [edit] Border and Immigration Agency/UK Border AgencyAs part of the wide ranging review of the Home Office, the then Home Secretary, John Reid, announced in July 2006 that all British immigration officers would be uniformed. On April 1 2007, the Border and Immigration Agency (BIA) was created and commenced operation. However, there were no police officers in the Agency, a matter that attracted considerable criticism when the Agency was established - agency officers have limited powers of arrest. Further powers for designated officers within the Agency, including powers of detention pending the arrival of a police officer, were introduced by the UK Borders Act 2007.[76] The Government has effectively admitted the shortcomings of the Agency by making a number fundamental changes within a year of its commencement. On 1st April 2008 the BIA became the UK Border Agency following a merger with UKvisas, the port of entry functions of HM Revenue and Customs. The Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith, announced that the UK Border Agency (UKBA) "...will bring together the work of the Border and Immigration Agency, UK Visas and parts of HM Revenue and Customs at the border, [and] will work closely with the police and other law enforcement agencies to improve border controls and security."[77] Within months of this, the Home Secretary revealed (in a 16-page response to a report by Lord Carlile, the independent reviewer of UK terrorism legislation) that the Home Office will issue a Green Paper proposing to take forward proposals by the Association of Chief Police Officers (England & Wales) for the establishment of a new 3,000-strong national border police force to work alongside the Agency.[78][79] [edit] National Crime ForceIn April 2007, the Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron announced the Conservative Party's proposals for reform of policing. These included:
In addition, the proposals made clear that on the issue of serious crime the 43 police forces in England and Wales would either have to have greater cooperation, or that the serious crime elements of their function would be invested in a National Serious Crime Force.[80] [edit] Police PayThe decision by the Home Secretary to refuse to implement the recommendation of the Police Arbitration Tribunal of a 2.5% increase in pay has caused widespread anger, especially as this decision stood in sharp contrast to the decision of the Scottish Government to fully implement the award for police officers in Scotland by backdating it to 1 September 2007.[81] By implementing the award with effect from 1 December 2007 for officers in England and Wales, the Home Secretary effectively reduced it to 1.9%, claiming that this was necessary in order to control inflation, despite the fact that police authorities had already made provision for the full 2.5% increase from their revenue budgets. [edit] Mandatory drug testsScotland's police forces are to introduce mandatory drugs tests in an attempt to stamp out substance abuse by officers.[82] The zero-tolerance policy will bring Scotland's police into line with the Army and other agencies and companies, as concerns grow over the number of police officers using recreational drugs. The Association of Chief Police Officers in Scotland is behind the roll out of the scheme. [edit] Overseas police forces in the UKThere are certain instances where police forces of other nations operate in a limited degree in the United Kingdom:
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